Using Technology to Improve INTRODUCTIONS
Generally speaking, classroom learning experiences have a beginning, at least from the learners' perspective. Many models of instruction include strategies for improving the effectiveness of lesson introductions, including anticipatory sets, advance organizers, and
Ausubel's subsumption theory predicts the instructional value of helping learners integrate new instructional information and ideas with previously presented information through comparisons and connections. He termed these instructional events "advance organizers," and they are commonly developed as part of an effective lesson introduction. Marzano, Pickering and Pollock (2001) suggest the use of "cues, questions and advance organizers" as part of an effective introduction (p. 111). These strategies are similar to those included in Madeline Hunter's model of effective instruction. She promotes the use of anticipatory sets in addition to communicating objectives as part of an effective lesson introduction (Hunter, 1982). Like advance organizers, anticipatory sets are events that promote making connections between what is about to be learned with what has already been learned, with the additional of strategies for motivating learners through establishing a need and/or gaining attention by promoting an anticipation of "...what's next?" Gaining attention is one of the key components of Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction (Gagne, 1985). The events he recommends during an introduction include gaining attention, informing learners of the objectives, and stimulating the recall of prior learning associated with what is about to be learned.
Ausubel's subsumption theory predicts the instructional value of helping learners integrate new instructional information and ideas with previously presented information through comparisons and connections. He termed these instructional events "advance organizers," and they are commonly developed as part of an effective lesson introduction. Marzano, Pickering and Pollock (2001) suggest the use of "cues, questions and advance organizers" as part of an effective introduction (p. 111). These strategies are similar to those included in Madeline Hunter's model of effective instruction. She promotes the use of anticipatory sets in addition to communicating objectives as part of an effective lesson introduction (Hunter, 1982). Like advance organizers, anticipatory sets are events that promote making connections between what is about to be learned with what has already been learned, with the additional of strategies for motivating learners through establishing a need and/or gaining attention by promoting an anticipation of "...what's next?" Gaining attention is one of the key components of Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction (Gagne, 1985). The events he recommends during an introduction include gaining attention, informing learners of the objectives, and stimulating the recall of prior learning associated with what is about to be learned.
In addition to the more traditional components of an instroduction, some strategies continue to be explored that seem to have a positive impact on the learning of specific types of skills. For example, the work of
Based on the different models and strategies defined and refined by learning theorists over the years, the following general listing of elements that might be included in an effective introduction are provided. Specific ways in which technology might be used to help design or implement individual strategies are presented in red font. Of course, many other uses of technology can be applied in any of the strategies described.
Effective Introduction Strategies
- Meaningful, purposeful, mindful instructional contexts should be established, and all subsequent instructional strategies should be presented "in context."
- When the learners are initially introduced to the instructional context, efforts should be made to really gain their attention. Videos or images that present discrepant events, humor, or other attention-getting strategies might be useful.
- Orienting activities should be initiated in which the purpose for personally engaging in the instruction is clearly established. This can be explicitly facilitated by the instruction, or implicitly established through the learner's meaningful relationship with the instructional context itself.
- Learners should be made aware of the purpose of the learning experience (this MIGHT involve informing the learners of intended outcomes).
- The instruction should facilitate the setting of personal goals relative to succeeding within the impending instructional experience.
- Instructor/learner communication and feedback should be provided to ensure that individual goals are indicative of the successful acquisition of intended instructional goals. This might be facilitated through the use of online goal-setting communication mechanisms.
- Opportunities should be presented that help learners identify in some way those skills, knowledge, and attitudes (SKA) already needed to succeed within the new learning environment. This may involve the presentation of cues within the instructional context that aid the learners in selecting and applying appropriate previously-learned SKA. Similarly, opportunities should be provided in which learners relate what they will be learning (goals and objectives) to what they already know how to do.
- A "Big Picture" should be presented that focuses attention on the bigger conceptual, intellectual, and/or social contexts in which the current instructional goals reside. This "Big Picture" might include a graphic representation of how the current instruction relates to previous instructional experiences, or it might include a graphic representation of the relationship between the general concepts to be learned and the related concepts that define a content domain. An initial "Big Picture" might also be generated by the individual learner as a means of communicating an initial state of awareness with the content addressed by the learning experience.
- Strategies should be employed to engage the learners in reflection over the usefulness (personal relevancy) of the SKA to be learned.
- Strategies should be employed for engaging the learners in identifying and articulating the intrinsic and extrinsic incentives/rewards for learning the SKA and succeeding within the learning environment.
- Access to learning scaffolds should be clearly identified, especially procedural scaffolds (guidance on how to utilize resources and tools, such as how-to sheets, tutors, introductory remarks and examples from the instructor). Computer-based procedural scaffolds include guided tours, maps and overview diagrams, tables of content, search engines.
- The introduction should establish clearly-perceived learner accountability, role(s) and task(s) within the learning environment, particularly if cooperative groups are to be established. In other words, individual learners should be very clear about what role they will play, and what their responsibilities will be, throughout the learning experience.
- The introduction may need to clarify the specific role that the instructor will play within the learning experience. Will the teacher be a “guide on the side,” providing individualized help when needed? Or will the teacher be the “sage on the stage,” presenting general information to the class as a whole?
- For complex task-centered learning, demonstrate the whole task.
References
Ausubel, D. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New York: Grune & Stratton.
Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Hunter, M. (1982). Mastery teaching. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press. Marzano, R., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. (2001). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. |