Instructional Scaffolds
Scaffolding is term used to categorize different types of support provided to learners in a learning experience to help them accomplish their own instructional goals. Such support mechanisms are commonly provided when goals to be accomplished lie beyond individual independent ability, particularly when instructional goals might be ill-defined and/or the learning environments are more open and loosely structured (Vygotsky 1978; Hannafin, Land, and Oliver, 1999). In addition to different types of support available within a learning environment, instructional experiences might also provide less access to support as learner competence increases (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976).
Scaffolds can take many forms in a learning experience. Saye and Brush (2002) categorize different scaffolding strategies as either “soft” or “hard.” Soft scaffolds represent fluid, dynamic actions by teachers (or instructional systems) that support learner efforts at the precise time when a specific need arises. Soft scaffolding requires teachers to continuously check for learner understanding and provide specific feedback, guidance, and information needed to help students progress toward successfully accomplishing their instructional goals. In such cases, the manner in which a teacher individually responds to student needs is the primary scaffolding strategy. Such strategies include questioning and responding to observational analysis. Implementing such strategies are arguably a teacher’s most important role within a learning experience.
Hard scaffolds are less dynamic support mechanisms and are planned and developed for typical difficulties learners might have with specific instructional tasks (Saye & Brush, 2002). These types of support mechanisms might include resources to help learners understand procedures, processes, concepts, strategies, and a variety of metacognitive skills needed to succeed in complex learning environments (Hannafin, Land, and Oliver, 1999).
One important characteristic of a scaffold is that it is available when needed, but it can be removed from the learning environment as learners become more competent in their abilities.
The "Big Picture" graphic at the top of this page presents three subcategories of instruction: Create, Implement and Evaluate. Scaffolds are developed to help aid in the successful implementation of instructional experiences and materials, though most scaffolds must be carefully created in advance as part of the instructional design process.
The term differentiation is popular in education these days, and certainly good teachers naturally differentiate the support provided to individual learners. It may seem that scaffolding is another form of differentiation, but a clarification of differences between these two concepts can help further explain scaffolding. The following distinctions between scaffolding and differentiation are provided on the Glossary of Education Reform website:
“As a general instructional strategy, scaffolding shares may similarities with differentiation, which refers to a wide variety of teaching techniques and lesson adaptations that educators use to instruct a diverse group of students, with diverse learning needs, in the same course, classroom, or learning environment. Because scaffolding and differentiation techniques are used to achieve similar instructional goals—i.e., moving student learning and understanding from where it is to where it needs to be—the two approaches may be blended together in some classrooms to the point of being indistinguishable. That said, the two approaches are distinct in several ways. When teachers scaffold instruction, they typically break up a learning experience, concept, or skill into discrete parts, and then give students the assistance they need to learn each part. For example, teachers may give students an excerpt of a longer text to read, engage them in a discussion of the excerpt to improve their understanding of its purpose, and teach them the vocabulary they need to comprehend the text before assigning them the full reading. Alternatively, when teachers differentiate instruction, they might give some students an entirely different reading (to better match their reading level and ability), give the entire class the option to choose from among several texts (so each student can pick the one that interests them most), or give the class several options for completing a related assignment (for example, the students might be allowed to write a traditional essay, draw an illustrated essay in comic-style form, create a slideshow “essay” with text and images, or deliver an oral presentation).”
(Hidden Curriculum, 2014).
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One of the most important theories of learning that informs the value and design of instructional scaffolds is Bruner’s constructivism theory. This theory describes learning as an active mental process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon the relationships between current and previous knowledge acquisition and experiences (Bruner, 1966). Based on his constructivist model, Bruner suggest that instructional experiences should involve contexts that encourage a willingness to learner, in addition to helping learners clearly understand that they are capable of learning the intended outcomes of a learning experience (readiness). Bruner also recommends that instructional experiences are structured so information, examples and initial practice can be easily understood by the learners (spiral organization) and builds upon earlier learning. Scaffolding can help learners actively connect what the already know and can do with what they are learning.
Another important learning theory that directly addresses the value of certain types of instructional scaffolds is Bandura’s social learning theory (Bandura, 1977). This theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the process of learning within an instructional experience, including the attitudes and emotions of those involved.
Supporting Bandura’s social learning theory is Vygotsky’s social development theory (Vygotsky, 1978). This learning framework describes the important role social interactions play in learning. Vygotsky describes learning as a function of initial social interactivity followed by complex internal processing (Vygotsky, 1978). In describing the mechanisms that underscore how social interactions can result in learning, Vygotsky describes the importance of support needed in a learning experience when a learner knows enough about what they are trying to learn how to do, but they still need help doing it; learners are not proficient enough to perform a skill on their own independently, but they can perform at a certain level within a social environment (with assistance) where modeling and support are readily available. Vygotsky termed the difference between what learners can do without assistance and what can do with assistance the “zone of proximal development” (Vygotsky, 1978). Scaffolds represent those strategies (people and/or resources) that provide assistance for learners in their zones of proximal development.
The following table presents descriptions of the different types of instructional scaffolds commonly used within effective learning environments, as well as examples of ways in which technology can be used to help provide such scaffolding.
Scaffold
Type |
Description |
Common
In-Class Examples |
Technology-Supported
Examples |
Procedural [Functional] |
Procedural
or functional scaffolds provide guidance on how to utilize instructional
resources and tools. |
§ “How-To” Sheets § Tutors § Introductory remarks
and examples from the instructor § Well-written
instructions |
§ Guided Tours § Maps and Overview § Diagrams § Tables of Content § Search Engines § Tutorials § Well-written
instructions |
Process |
Process
scaffolds help learners figure out where they are within an instructional
experience. They also help learners
figure out what they need to do to get where they want to go within an
instructional experience. |
§ "Big Picture"
review § Daily introduction § Daily closure
activities |
§ History of user path
throughout program or website § Explicit directions for
navigating the program or website § Clear menu structures § Site maps § Identification of links
traveled |
Conceptual |
Conceptual
scaffolds provide guidance over what the learners should consider or reflect
upon throughout the learning experience. |
§ Benchmark lesson(s)
facilitated by an instructor § Study questions § Advance organizers |
§ Course Concept Maps and
"Big Pictures" § Moderated chat
experiences § Moderated discussion
groups |
Metacognitive:
Planning |
Metacognitive
scaffolds represent mechanisms for learners to receive guidance on how to
best think about problem(s) under study.
Planning
scaffolds allow students to set goals and objectives, chart benchmarks and
deadlines for projects, create concept maps, etc. |
§ Organizational schemes
[“Activities & Materials,” “In-Progress,” and “Completed” folders] |
§ Concept mapping
software |
Metacognitive:
Regulating |
Regulating
scaffolds help students monitor their progress and receive feedback on their
performance |
§ Individual mentoring § Peer tutoring § Teacher modeling |
§ Computer quizzes § Interactive practice
exercises |
Metacognitive:
Evaluating |
Evaluating
scaffolds allow students to critique one another's work, exchange documents
to-from the instructor for revising, etc. |
§ Rubrics and checklists § “In” box for reviewing
work-in-progress |
§ Rubrics and checklists § E-mail with attached
documents |
Strategic |
Strategic
scaffolds help learners figure out various approaches to solving problems. |
§ Small group § Mini-lessons § Textbook assignments § Hints and examples |
§ Open chats § Open discussion groups
and forums § Hints |
Interpersonal |
Interpersonal
scaffolds provide guidance for facilitating constructive collaboration and
interpersonal interactions. |
§ Specific roles
assignments § Modeling and examples § Interaction debriefing |
§ Specific role
assignments § Modeling and examples § Mediated discussion and
chat environments |
References
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hannafin, M. J., Land, S., & Oliver, K. M. (1999). Open learning environments: Foundations, methods, and models. In C. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-Design Theories and Models: Volume II (pp. 115-140). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Hidden curriculum (2014, August 26). In S. Abbott (Ed.), The glossary of education reform. Retrieved from http://edglossary.org/hidden-curriculum
Saye, J. & Brush, T. (2002). Scaffolding Critical Reasoning about History and Social Issues in Multimedia-Supported Learning Environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, Vol. 50, No. 3 (2002), pp. 77-96.
Vygotsky, L., ed. 1978. Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The Role of Tutoring In Problem Solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 89-100.